Activating brain function: facts and controversy

 

 

 Activating brain function: facts and controversy

 

What is the brain?

The brain is a member that acts as a centre of the nervous system in all vertebrates and most invertebrates. Located in the head, it is close to the sensory organs of the senses such as vision. It is the most complex organ in the body of vertebrates. In humans, the cerebral cortex contains approximately 14-16 billion neurons, and the estimated number of neurons in the cerebellum is estimated at 55-70 billion. Each neuron is linked by smurfs to several thousand other neurons. These neurons communicate in some of them through long fibres called axles.

 

Physiologically, the brain exercises central control over other organs of the body. Works on the rest of the body by generating patterns of muscle activity and by increasing the secretion of chemicals called Hormones. This central control allows for quick and coordinated responses to changes in the environment.

 

You now understand how individual brain cells work in great detail, but the way they cooperate with each other in millions of neurons groups is not yet understood. Modern models of modern neuroscience treat the brain as a biological computer, very different in mechanism from an electronic computer, but similar in the sense that it acquires information from the surrounding world, stores it and processes it in several ways.

 

What are the functions of the brain?

We may say that the functioning of the brain, part of the central nervous system, is the organization of most of the body and mind's work. It includes vital works, such as breathing or heartbeat, simpler actions, such as sleep, hunger or sexual instinct, to higher actions, such as thinking, remembering to speak.

It decomposes in parts of the brain how to harden old brain compositions (located in the brain, i.e. the symmetric onion, the wretch, the cerebellum, and the mediating brain) simple vital functions. I mean, the functions that fall into the brain (spine, Caroli bridge and cerebellum) and the middle brain. In contrast, higher brain functions such as inference, memory and attention are monitored by the halves and cerebral Lobes of the Cortex. The correct alert may help improve the state of different cognitive abilities

 

What are cognitive functions?

Cognitive functions are mental remedies that allow us to receive, choose, store, transform, prepare and restore environmental information. It allows us to understand and have a relationship with the world around us.

We use our brain functions constantly within a day. Do you want a good breakfast? Do you want to read a book? Are you driving a car? Do you have a stimulating conversation with your friends?

 

What are the functions of the brain?

When we talk about higher cognitive work, we want the cognitive skills we need to understand and interact with the world. Although we consider these skills as separate elements, we have to rely on matching and overlapping cognitive work. Let's see what the basic brain works are:

 

Attention:

Attention is a very complex mental treatment that cannot be reduced to a simple definition. It is a specific anatomical structure and cannot be evaluated with a single pillar because it includes different treatments. To simplify, he can say that attention is the cognitive work with which we choose between stimuli that simultaneously reach the brain, either from the outside (smells, sounds, images..) Or from within (thoughts, emotions...). We choose useful and appropriate incentives for motor and mental activity. It's a combination of treatments that vary in complexity and allow us to do other cognitive work properly. According to the hierarchical model of Sohlberg and Mateer (Sohlberg & Mateer, 1987; Sohlberg & Mateer, 1989), There are different types of attention depending on its complexity:

 

• Focused attention: Caution. sit on the response to the stimulus.

• Related attention: The ability to keep attention in at least 3 minutes. It's what we usually call "concentration." When we read a book, we're focused.

• Selective attention: The ability to keep attention on a mission to prevent the environment from being stunned, such as the noise around us. To follow the previous example, selective attention allows us to read a book, although you listen to music or the washing machine begins to spin. 

• Alternating attention: Mental plasticity allows us to change our attention from one task to another easily. For example, when we read and sing a song we love, we may stop reading and sing or listen to the song, but we can reread quickly.

• Divided attention: The ability to respond to more than one task at the same time means paying attention to two things at the same time. For example, when we talk to a friend in a café, while we write WhatsApp for another, or when we talk about the phone (or watch TV or listen to music) while we cook.

 

 

Activating brain function

The theme, "Increased Brain Function", is a comprehensive term for approaches of different disciplines, aimed at improving brain performance in both healthy people and patients with neurological disabilities. The brain functions that scientists hope to increase belong to sensory, motor and cognitive fields. The brain can be improved psychedelically or using neural stimulation. Functional improvements can also be achieved through brain training techniques that use modern techniques such as computer games and virtual reality. Furthermore, brain performance can be increased using brain and machine interfaces (BMIs), pathways that connect neural circuits to external auxiliary devices, such as prosthetics, external structures, and means of communication. In addition to sending orders to external devices.

 

Although many brain augmentation ideas seem like science fiction, the authors of the topic are optimistic about most of them. The general consensus is that brain performance can be improved using artificial components, and this approach will lead to practical applications in the not-too-distant future. Many of the techniques addressed in the subject, for example, BMI and non-invasive stimulation, have already experienced tremendous development. While expectations are high for increased approaches, philosophers warn of ethical issues related to techniques that interfere with the mind, perhaps in unexpected ways. Although some of these concerns seem elusive, it is important to maintain high ethical standards while developing these revolutionary brain augmenting methods.

 

 

The top 10 most-watched articles on the subject ("1" are the highest-ranked) highlight key trends in brain augmented research:

 

• Improve performance at the expense of potential brain flexibility: neurological repercussions of nootropic drugs in the developing brain.
• "Non-surgical" brain stimulation is not non-surgical (Davis and Coningsbrugen).
• Increase cognitive brain function using transcranial lasers (Gonzalez-Lima and Barrett).
• Increase the intelligence of the fairy tale (so far) (Haier).
• Attitudes towards pharmacological cognitive enhancement - review (Shell et al.).
• Sleep to strengthen cognition (Decelman).
• Current transcranial direct stimulation: five important issues we don't discuss (but maybe we should discuss) (Horvath)
• Enhance donor/memory recipient in rat fortresses (Didweiler et al. ).
• Enhance cognitive and neurological functions through complex thinking training: evidence from ordinary and clinical populations (Chapman and Mudder).
• When is minimizing a form of reinforcement? Rethink discussing improvement in biomedical ethics.

 

 

These and other articles on the subject of the research express three main ideas related to brain augmentation methods. 

• The first is the idea of decrypting information from brain activity. Neuromarketing can be sampled in different recording ways. Brain signals deciphered can be processed by BMI and used to increase motor, sensory and cognitive functions. 

• The second idea is the suggestion that the brain can be increased by stimulation; for example, modifying neural circuits by applying electrical stimulation/genetic optics or using pharmacological factors to influence Neurotherapy. 

• The third futuristic idea is to see radical improvements for humans and human beings, such as revolutionary clinical methods, the immortality of consciousness, and even brain-to-brain communication. 

  

 We used these topics to group articles into three volumes. Volume 1 covers ways to record and decrypt nerve signals with BMI; volume two is a collection of articles on neurostimulation and pharmacological methods. Volume III describes clinical applications of brain augmentation methods, future ideas and ethical issues.

Volume 1: Brain-Machine Interface

BMI is the main theme of the first volume. The articles cover a wide range of BMI applications, including traditional applications and relatively recently emerging BMI indicators. Notable new developments in this area are BMI to control walking on two feet, body mass indicators that modify attention and techniques that enhance human ability to predict future events. Like any rapidly evolving scientific field, the BMI field is not without challenges and differences. To this end, several articles critically assess the current state of the field and propose future improvements. One pressing issue is the relatively low information transfer rate (ITR) of the current body mass index. Paranauskas discusses the key factors limiting international telecommunications regulations and suggests that a better understanding of neural mechanisms is needed to improve BMI accuracy and versatility.

 Many articles describe specific neural mechanisms that can be used in BMI and other brain augmentation approaches to improve their efficiency. Thus, it highlights the need for a better understanding of the micromirrors of the brain in healthy and patients with neurological impairment. He suggests that brain circuits involved in cognition and work should be thoroughly examined for BMI methods to be effective, and argues that the neural network approach should be associated with cognitive enhancement methods.

 

When designing brain augmentation systems, it is important to understand the brain conditions targeted by these techniques. Sleep is one of these conditions on which methods of increase can be applied. As mentioned above, an article (Diekelmann) discusses at length how sleep mechanisms can be used to enlarge the brain. In addition, Pigarev and Pigareva highlight two sleep-related phenomena related to the brain augmentation approach: partial sleep and visceral sleep therapy.

 

Work planning and decision-making are other neurological functions where enhancement methods can be applied. To this end, Mirabella reviews the neural mechanisms of target-oriented actions and links them to the search for the increased brain. Furthermore, Opris et al. stated that the relationship between neonatal activity and mobility is influenced by the degree of certainty about the reward that can result from motor action. Therefore, BMIs that decrypt the kinetic parameters of movements should include a model to represent the reward. In fact, reward (or enhancement) is an integral part of any BMI system, and the operation of some of these systems is explicitly described as self-regulation of brain activity based on enhanced learning. Yet, Wood et al. To clarify that restraint of neural activity should be distinguished from the broader concept of BMI control and propose a framework that takes into account the interaction between automatic information processing and control. Moreover, Deepeshwar et al. and Tellis et al. Call for meditation as a model of self-control to enlarge the brain.

 

For the brain enlargement method to be effective, it must properly accommodate mechanisms for brain plasticity. Many articles in volume one discuss these mechanisms. De Pino et al. Sakoray review the brain plasticity caused by the use of artificially increased effects. Sakurai et al. describe the effective adaptation of neural circuits that can cause plasticity without changing behaviour? Benyamini and Zacksenhouse provide evidence that brain circuits work largely like the optimal feedback control while adjusting for BMI control. In addition, Qi et al.stated that the physical sensory system in mature primates is capable of plasticity that compensates for unilateral lesions for dorsal column imports. Finally, Frye et al. suggest that brain enlargement research should not be limited to brain tissue because peripheral organs also play a role in modifying and increasing brain function. In support of this proposal, they found a hepatic factor involved in neuroplasticity.

 

BMI performance depends decisively on the type of neural signal recorded and decrypted. Invasive and non-invasive BMI are the main categories of BMI determined by the registration method. Waldport discusses the pros and cons of invasive and non-invasive recordings and the future of these methods. Among non-invasive methods, EEG is the most common approach used in BMI. Obeid and Bacon reported the existence of an EEG database collected by Temple University Hospital. This database can be useful for exploring the neural representation of information and developing BMI decryption algorithms. Callan et al., assessing the efficiency of dry EEG recordings, argue that this method is useful for decrypting audio events from EEG data, even when large acoustic noise, mechanical and physiological artifacts, interfere with recordings during simulated and real flight conditions. Blankertz in Al. Review the various uses of EEG-based BMI, including practically targeted applications and the use of BMI as research tools.

  

While the BODY MASS index based on an electroencephalogram is easy to implement and safe to use, the rate of information transfer (ITR) is limited. ITR can be improved if the electrical activity is recorded from the surface of the brain using an electrocardiogram (ECoG), a minimally invasive method. Kapler et al. report a high-performance ECoG BMI based on induced visual potential, and Zippo et al. described a new network with wireless recordings, tested in rhesus monkeys.

 

Functional MRI is another non-invasive recording method suitable for BMI applications. Karya discusses the neurophysiological mechanisms involved in self-regulation of the level of blood oxygenation monitored by functional MRI.

 

Intracranial recordings promise a radical improvement in the quality of nerve signals used in BMI. However, this possibility has not yet been realized due to safety and longevity problems with brain implants. Techniques develop rapidly to make invasive implants more efficient. Among these technologies, nanostructure-based recording sensors are particularly promising (Vidu et al.). Additionally, Agorelius et al. describe a new multichannel implant consisting of flexible electrodes to reduce brain tissue damage.

  

In addition to "pure" BMI (i.e. those based solely on recordings from the brain), additional types of PV recordings may be useful in brain augmentation methods. Shishkin et al. report a hybrid BMI that is used, in addition to extracting motor intentions from the activity of an electroencephalogram, recordings of the ECG markers of the eye position to stabilize the outlook to improve BMI performance. EMG interfaces are another category of boosters that can operate muscle electric hand replacements for amputees (Atzori and Müller) or convert the activity of the forearm electrolyte scheme into handwriting effects (Okorokova et al.; Okorokova et al.).

  

Choosing sensory feedback is another important factor that primarily affects BMI performance. Many articles look at different types of notes. Alimardani et al. report manipulations with visual reactions that improve the operation of BMI for motor images. BMI performance can be further improved using multisensory stimuli such as Thurlings et al., such as combining visual feedback with touch (Honeine and Schieppati; Bouchard et al.) and audio inputs (Tonelli et al.). Oi and Patterson describe comments from practical video games;.Wright examines the visual comments provided by Virtual Reality; the article discusses how Virtual Reality can be used as an approach to enlarging the brain. Alvaro et al report the results of a neuroscience study, where they examined plasticity in the visible and auditory areas of a colour blind with eight years of training to use a device called "Eyeborg" that converts colours into sounds. Finally, Bravi et al. Report improvements in physical sensory feedback with flexible therapeutic tape.

 

BMI performance can be improved using better decryption algorithms. Lee's article reviews the current status of research in this area. Ross and Schipper argue that a BMI decryption screwdriver should include nonlinear properties to enhance BMI to better match normal motor performance. Lebedev discusses how different BMI decoding units can be evaluated using neuron projection curves.

 

 

Volume 2: Neurostimulation and pharmacological approaches

In volume two, one set of articles covers a variety of neurostimulation methods (Balan et al.), while the other group describes pharmacological methods. Electrical stimulation is a traditional way to stimulate brain activity. Types of electrical stimulation include microscopic stimulation within the Cortex (ICMS), current direct transcranial stimulation (tDCS), and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) that stimulates electrical currents in nerve tissues. Electrical stimulation can also be applied to muscles (Talis et al.).

  

Non-invasive stimulation methods have gained popularity in recent years as a way to increase brain function, yet there are still many unknowns and differences. Krauss, Cohen Kadosh, Horvath et al. examine the role of differences between topics in responding to tDCS. McKendrick et al. propose an approach in which wearables combining tDCS with a new generation of mini fNIRS systems are used. Bloomberg et al. and Foroughi et al. it was reported that performance in spatial tasks could be improved by tDCS applied to the posterior fresco. Younger et al. prove that tDCS applied to the lower left parietal lobe can increase sub-reading skills. Suppose that a network approach can be combined with brain stimulation. Hornig et al. discuss neurostimulation methods that can be used to treat cortical oscillations. Coganimaru et al. the Tsagaris et al. indicate that the efficiency of neural stimulation can be improved if combined with appropriate task patterns.

 

As mentioned earlier, Davis and Coningsbrugen do not believe that the term "non-invasive" is appropriate to describe non-invasive stimulation methods that severely affect the brain and cause long-term consequences. Therefore, these methods should be used with extreme caution. Among the effects of non-invasive stimulation, the authors of the dynamics of the subject name bias network (Wokke et al.) and the effect on blood dynamics in the brain (Pulgar; Dutta). In addition, brain function can be affected even by the use of transcranial lasers (Gonzalez-Lima and Barrett). Discuss the potential of non-invasive stimulation as a research tool in studies of cognition, cognition and behaviour. Additionally, Luber argues that increasing the brain with non-invasive stimulation cannot be explained by suggesting a net-zero total; that is, the mechanism by which brain resources are reallocated: gains in one function are balanced by costs elsewhere.

 

Among the invasive methods of neural alerting, photogenic methods have received special attention in recent years, and many articles in volume II cover different aspects of this approach (Kwon et al., Jarvis and Schultz). During the development of genetic optics methods, the classic electrolysis approach has already led to clinically relevant applications such as vestibular implantation (Van der Berg et al.) and tactile neurodegenerative compensation that uses precise stimulation within the cortex (Kim et al.).

  

Memory prosthetics represent a recent trend in simulation-based BMI. Volume II covers much memory augmenting approaches. Madan, Benabi et al. Deveau et al., Morrow, Malo et al. Takeuchi et al. Discuss different ways to perform neural compensatory memory. Song D et al. Report a memory prosthesis, where memory content is extracted from hippocampus activity using a dynamic non-linear multi-input model and multiple outputs. In addition to neurostimulation, pharmacological approaches have been developed to increase memory and cognition (Lynch et al.). Brain training techniques can also be used to improve memory and cognition (Chapman, Mudder; Ben Sussan et al.; Haier). In particular, Betty et al. Investigate many working memory tasks where training can be transferred from one task to another. Additionally, Rabinovich et al. Suggest a mathematical model explore ways to increase memory. The model relies on inhibitory networks - frequently exciting with heterogeneous inhibition.

 

As far as pharmacological approaches to brain enlargement are concerned, Urban, Gao and Lynch et al. discuss the pros and cons of using nootropic drugs to increase brain performance. Concern about nootropic drugs is great and is shared by the general public (Schelle, Faulmüller et al.; Schelle, Olthof, et al.; Garasic and Lavazza). Using an individual-oriented approach, Jellen et al. propose a method for examining and personalizing nootropic drugs; Piermacino et al. review the effects of drug interventions on cognition in older people, while Kang et al. Review the effects of acetylcholine in the primary visual cortex that can be used to change and increase visual perception.

 

 

Volume 3: From Clinical Applications to Ethical Issues and Future Ideas

The development of clinical applications is perhaps the most important trend in brain amplification (Schicktanz et al. Many volume III articles illustrate the progress already made in clinical solutions to conditions such as epilepsy (Höller and Trinka; DeMarse, Carney, Zeitler and Tas), stroke (Grimm et al.), Parkinson's disease (Lebedev et al.; Lee et al.), Huntington's disease (Nagle et al.), dementia (Garriga et al., Franco), Alzheimer's disease (Yegla and Parikh), Autism Spectral Disorders (ASD) (Billeci et al.), traumatic brain injuries (Alois and Rajan; Tajiri et al.), and awareness disorders (eBay et al.). There is growing evidence that non-invasive stimulation can be used to treat a range of neurological conditions (Vicario and Nitsche). Thus, Sukhadzi et al. report reported that TMS applied to the brutal dorsal prefrontal cortex improves the executive function of ASD, as evidenced by improvements in behavioural interactions and event-related EEG potential. Additionally, according to a case report prepared by Brem et al., tDCS can be applied to treat spatial-visual neglect. Krawinkel et al. Provide insights into how non-invasive stimulation of conditions such as schizophrenia and Parkinson's disease is treated by modifying brain oscillations. Additionally, Kubera et al. review the application of non-invasive brain stimulation in the treatment of verbal auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia. Moreover, Ayash et al. Report that tDCS in front of the forehead can reduce pain in patients with multiple sclerosis. Charvet et al. suggested that non-invasive therapeutic stimulation could be managed remotely under the supervision of medical staff, eliminating patients' need to travel to the hospital, and Thibault argues that the efficiency of therapeutic neurostimulation can be improved through neurological components.

  

The articles we call the future examine the prospects for recently transferred promotion methods from science fiction to theory and scientific research. Thus, Kennedy argues that advances in BMI techniques can help humanity adapt to the "moment of uniqueness," a time when artificial intelligence transcends human intelligence. Brain-to-brain interfaces that enable communication between many individual brains are another futuristic idea implemented in many hildt studies. For example, Deadwyler et al. showed that brain-to-brain communications can be used to transmit memories (see also the summary of this article above). Kiriazises expands the idea of brain interface to the brain even further by proposing a global brain, a self-regulation system that connects many humans. In addition, Sexton, Lukinova and Myagkov discuss the role of social interactions in technology augmentations. Finally, enhancement methods can be applied to modify awareness (Perry and Parker), although its neural mechanisms are not well understood (Phuket).

  

This topic has attracted a large number of material related to ethical issues related to brain augmentation methods ( Glannon, Glannon, Attia and Farah. Nagle, Clark, Maslin et al.), including the relationship between minimization and promotion after the application of brain augmentation techniques (Earp et al. ), the problem of "mind control" with body mass index techniques (Koivuniemi and Otto), free will (Glannon, Glannon), the duty to use cognitive enhancements in high-responsibility professions (Santoni et al.), and determine the number of People who need brain enhancement (Schlem), enlightened public policy (Schock et al.), cognitive biases (Kavola et al.), and noise caused by the development of brain augmentation approaches (Roscony and Mitchner Nissen).